The owl-shaped Fu Hao bronze zun vessel unearthed from the tomb of Fu Hao, a military general and the queen of King Wu Ding of Shang Dynasty Photo: Ren Guanhong/CSST

The project aiming to trace the origins of Chinese civilization specifically focuses on China’s history prior to 1500 BCE, or the early years of the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE), which is regarded as a reliable starting point for exploring the origins of Chinese civilization.

Oracle bone inscriptions

Writing, metallurgy, and cities have been internationally considered as the “Three Civilizational Elements,” marking the birth of a civilization. However, archaeological practices in China have shown that the so-called “Three Civilizational Elements” are not universally applicable. Archaeological findings such as capital cities, palaces, large tombs, ritual vessels and systems, and traces of warfare and violence can also be used as evidence of the emergence of monarchies and states, even in the absence of writing. All the same, writing still plays an important role in clarifying the origins of civilization.

Oracle bone inscriptions testify to the recorded Shang history. In the early 20th century, the discoveries of the oracle bone inscriptions at the Yinxu site [at Anyang, Henan Province], Dunhuang documents, and the Han bamboo slips excavated at Juyan [at Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region] directed academic attention to the significance of underground relics for historical studies. The celebrated Chinese scholar Wang Guowei (1877–1927) proposed a “method of double proof,” arguing that information gathered from China’s classical texts [generally seen as orthodox versions of history] should be backed up with empirical archeological evidence, and vice versa. He traced the genealogy of the ancestors of the Shang kings and dukes from oracle bone inscriptions, and compared it with the genealogy of the Shang kings recorded in Shiji [early history of China written around 85 BCE], finally confirming the Shang kings’ genealogy and identifying the Shang as part of China’s recorded history.

The oracle bone inscriptions represent a mature writing system. On the ritual ceramic vessels discovered at the Xiaoshuangqiao site [at Henan] from the mid-Shang era, archaeologists found inscriptions written in cinnabar pigment. The content includes characters denoting numbers, pictographs or symbols, and others (phrases composed of single characters). In terms of the form and structure of characters, Xiaoshuangqiao inscriptions belong to the same writing system as oracle bone and bronze inscriptions, all of which are closely related to ritual activities. Xiaoshuangqiao inscriptions have been proved to predate oracle bone and bronze inscriptions, meaning they are significanct to studying the origin and development of Chinese writing. The discoveries of writings ranging from the early to late Shang confirm the long history of Chinese characters.

Pivot of ‘ancient Chinese history’

Since the Shang has been identified as recorded history by oracle bone inscriptions, the Shang civilization becomes the starting point for tracing the origins of Chinese civilization. After 1949, the discoveries of the city ruins including the Zhengzhou Shang city, the Shang city at Yanshi, Xiaoshuangqiao, and the Huanbei Shang city, yield a wealth of archaeological relics and other significant findings. Since the birth of Chinese archaeology, one of its main objectives has been to restore the ancient historical record, especially the prehistoric period study that relies heavily on archaeological research due to the lack of archives. The exploration of prehistoric China should start from the late Shang Yinxu site, which has yielded bountiful archaeological artifacts.

The Yinxu site is the first capital city of late Shang that has been verified by reliable historical documents and confirmed by archaeological discoveries. Important remains such as palaces, temples, and royal cemeteries were found at the site, as well as handicraft-related artifacts such as bronze shards, pottery models, jade and stone materials, and primitive porcelain. Many high-ranking relics such as bronze and jade ritual utensils were also unearthed.

Foundations of palaces and temples, as well as sacrificial zones were found at the Xiaoshuangqiao site. During the late sub-phase of Upper Erligang [dated to 1400–1210 BCE], Xiaoshuangqiao was a religious and political center with the air of a capital city. Some scholars identify it with the city of Ao, named as one of the Shang capitals [according to Shiji, Zhong Ding, the tenth Shang king, moved his capital from Bo to Ao in the first year of his reign].

Zhengzhou Shang city site is believed to be the ancient city of Bo. It is the earliest discovered urban center in China with an outer city (guo-cheng). Discoveries at this site include palaces, handicraft workshops for bronze casting, pottery making, and bone tool making. Yanshi Shang city site was probably the secondary capital set up by the first Shang king to appease the Xia survivors after his army overthrew the Xia Dynasty.

In 1954, the Chinese archaeologist Li Chi (1896–1979) proposed that China’s ancient history should be restored based on the findings from the Yinxu site, which could link above-ground [textual materials] with underground materials, and connect China’s history with its prehistory. This implies that the Shang civilization can connect the Xia with many other prehistoric materials, outlining China’s ancient history in a clearer manner.

Key turning point

The overall process of Chinese civilization is continuous. Agriculture originated more than 10,000 years ago, boosting settled communities. Around 8,000 years ago, further development of agriculture promoted modest social differentiation, as well as the emergence of complex ideology and knowledge systems. Around 6,000 years ago, large central settlements emerged, paving the way for the subsequent emergence of civilized societies around 5,000 years ago. Around 4,300 years ago, cultures represented by Taosi [in Shanxi] and Shimao [in Shaanxi] sites had already formed early state-level organizations. Around 3,800 years ago, the Xia, represented by the Erlitou site [commonly believed to be a Xia capital] at Yanshi, Henan, sprang up. After the Shang overthrew the Xia, the Zhengzhou Shang city, Yanshi Shang city, and Yinxu emerged successively. Building upon the political and cultural legacy of Xia, the Shang civilization continued to evolve and develop. After the Shang, the civilization centered around the Central Plain took form, and began to culturally influence surrounding areas, which laid the foundation for the “Plurality and Unity in the Configuration of the Chinese Nationality.”

The Shang represents a key turning point in the overall process of Chinese civilization. Studies show that the social groups integrated by large central settlements such as Taosi and Shimao in the late Neolithic Age had already borne features of initial states, or the “embryonic stage of a state.” No evidence shows that there were inheritors of those early state-level organizations in the same areas after the decline and disappearance of these social groups. It can be inferred that at the “embryonic stage of a state,” social evolution was not mainly a linear process from simplicity to complexity. Instead, complex society emerged, disappeared, and emerged again. In a sense, it can be likened to a cyclical process, where societal development goes through recurring phases.

In contrast, the Shang people, after displacing the Erlitou culture (c. 1900–1350 BCE) that had entered the early state-level society, inherited the Erlitou political, cultural heritage in a short period of time, and continued to develop. The most obvious manifestation is that the Shang established its capital at the heartland of the Xia–the Heluo area [around present-day Luoyang]. Shiji recorded that Xia, Shang, and Zhou all established their capitals in the Heluo area. According to Wang Lixin, a professor from the Department of History at Peking University, the practices of establishing capital cities by Xia, Shang, and Zhou serve the purpose of reinforcing the orthodox ideology of a dynasty and demonstrating the legitimacy of its rule. The bronze-casting workshop found at the Zhengzhou Shang city site is believed to have been moved from the Erlitou city site after the Xia was conquered. The exclusive casting and use of bronzeware represented the ritualization of Chinese civilization in the early state-level stage. The Shang inherited and promoted the dynastic systems formed by Xia Dynasty, which in turn influenced the following Zhou. Based on the Shang ritual system, Chinese civilization began its evolution centered around China’s Central Plain.

Li Penghui is an associate professor from the School of History and Culture at Henan University.