FILE PHOTO: A detail of the “Western Regions Merchants Encountering Bandits” depicted on the south wall of Mogao Cave 45

The world-renowned Dunhuang caves are not only a significant embodiment of ancient Chinese Buddhist culture but also rich visual encyclopedia of ancient social life. The murals of Dunhuang vividly depict various aspects of commercial activities and the dissemination of Buddhist culture along the ancient Silk Road, offering direct and invaluable imagery that sheds light on trade and cultural exchanges across this historic route.

Goods transport on Silk Road

In the Mogao Caves, two murals known as the “Buddhist Illustration of the Field of Merit” in Cave 296 (Northern Zhou Dynasty) and Cave 302 (Sui Dynasty) depict scenes of commercial activities on the ancient Silk Road.

In Cave 296’s mural, a wide, flat bridge with wooden railings spans a rushing river. Two donkeys, laden with goods, are crossing the bridge, followed by two Northern Zhou merchants on horseback wearing scarves and seemingly escorting the cargo. Accompanying them is a monk clad in a vermilion robe, his hands clasped in prayer, illustrating the close partnership between merchants and monks on the Silk Road.

On the opposite side of the bridge, a Central Asian merchant, depicted with a prominent nose and brooding eyes, dressed in a dark, narrow-sleeved robe, leads two camels loaded with goods. Two donkeys follow, also carrying cargo, while another man urges the caravan forward with a whip. This vivid scene highlights the importance of camels and donkeys as indispensable transport animals for goods for Silk Road trade. Capturing a rare moment of interaction between Chinese and Central Asian merchant caravans, the mural offers valuable evidence of East-West exchanges that occurred over a millennium ago.

Rest for travelers

For merchants traversing the Silk Road, periods of rest were as essential as the journeys themselves. In the “Buddhist Illustration of the Field of Merit” in Cave 296, a scene depicts a camel cart with its yoke removed. The driver sits on a stone block, resting his chin on his right hand, while a camel reclines beneath a lush tree. Nearby, two Central Asian merchants draw water from a well, while three horses and donkeys drink from a trough. At the end of the mural, a particularly striking image shows a fallen camel being treated with medicine by two merchants. One, dressed in black, holds the camel’s mouth open, while the other, in red, carefully offers a bowl of medicine.

Such scenes reveal the hardships of long journeys across the Gobi Desert, especially during the scorching summer months. For travelers, discovering a leafy oasis would have been a true blessing. A mural in Cave 296 depicts an enclosed orchard with eight lush trees in two neat rows, providing shade for three resting travelers. Similarly, in Cave 302, woodland scenes accompany an irregularly shaped bathing pool, where two individuals are shown cooling off.

The murals also include depictions of a Buddhist story in which a bhikkhu from the kingdom of Vāranasi establishes small monasteries along distant trade routes. These monasteries served as small inns, offering travelers shelter and amenities where they could rest or even enjoy entertainment. One mural in Cave 296 features a multi-storied pavilion with a walled courtyard. Inside, a musician plays the pipa while two others drink from “Glittering Night” cups [a special jade craftwork from Jiuquan in Gansu Province in Northwest China], enjoying music and wine.

Challenges on the Silk Road

The murals in Cave 420 (Sui Dynasty) depict a dramatic sequence from the story of “Avalokiteshvara Rescuing from Eight Fears,” where Avalokiteshvara saves travelers from robbery along the Silk Road. In one sequence, moving from right to left, a merchant is shown kneeling in prayer to Avalokiteshvara for a safe journey before setting out. The subsequent scene shows a caravan navigating a steep, high mountain pass, with camels and donkeys struggling under heavy loads. A camel on the mountaintop accidentally loses its footing and plummets off the cliff, while two merchants, terrified, look down into the deep valley. Ahead of them, a caravan descending the mountain carefully controls their donkeys, worried that one might fall off the cliff. The merchants tightly hold the donkeys’ tails and lead them down slowly. When the caravan safely reaches the valley, the merchants rest by a creek on a grassy flat. They unload the camels, horses, and donkeys, allowing the relieved animals to graze, drink, and rest—one donkey even rolls joyfully on the ground.

To prevent accidents, the caravan leader has stationed a lookout midway up the mountain. The lookout raises his left hand and gazes at the mountain pass. Suddenly, a group of bandits, clad in full armor, riding horses and armed with weapons, charges toward the caravan. The merchants hurriedly grab shields and swords, bravely resisting the attack. However, overwhelmed by the sheer number of assailants, they are captured, and their goods are plundered. In this moment of crisis, the merchants recite the name of Avalokitesvara. Moved by this invocation, the bandits lower their weapons, and, forming two orderly lines, clasp their hands together in reverent prayer. The merchants are thus spared.

The “Western Regions Merchants Encountering Bandits” depicted in the “Illustration of the Avalokitesvara” on the south wall of Cave 45 at the Mogao Caves (Tang Dynasty) is another vivid portrayal of this recurring theme. It realistically reflects the perilous experiences of Western Regions merchants ambushed and robbed along the Silk Road. The mural presents a deep and narrow gorge where a group of merchants from the Western Regions—distinguished by their felt hats, traditional Central Asian attire, high noses, deep-set eyes, and thick beards—are confronted by three bandits dressed in Han clothing, wielding sharp blades, who ambush them on the road.

Behind the merchants, a caravan of mules and horses carries cargo laden with silk and jewels. One mule’s cargo has already been unloaded, and bundles of silk and a sack of jewels are seen piled in front of the bandits. The merchants, bending low and with hands clasped together in prayer, appear filled with fear and anxiety as they desperately plead for their lives. However, the bandits, armed with long knives, refuse to let them go.

Since the safety of merchants traveling the Silk Road was a constant concern, the depiction of such dangerous encounters and the hope for rescue has been a recurring theme in Dunhuang murals from the Sui to Song dynasties. The “Avalokitesvara’s Protection from Bandits” motif continues to appear throughout these murals.

Cultural exchange

While the Dunhuang murals do not comprehensively depict the entirety of the Silk Road, they symbolically illustrate the rich cultural exchanges facilitated by this vast network. The mural on the south wall of Mogao Cave 217, created during the prime of the Tang Dynasty, primarily depicts the narrative of Buddhapālita’s journey, scenes of the Buddha preaching, and various faith-related episodes based on the sutra. The story of Buddhapālita recounts his pilgrimage, which began in Kashmir in northern India. Traveling along the Silk Road, he arrived in China in 676 during the Tang Dynasty. While making a pilgrimage to Mount Wutai, Buddhapālita encountered an elderly man—revealed to be a manifestation of Manjushri Bodhisattva. Following the old man’s guidance, Buddhapālita returned to India to retrieve the Sanskrit text of the Sutra of the Buddha-Crown Superb Victory Dharani. In 683, he brought the sutra to Chang’an and presented it to the Tang emperor. Emperor Gaozong then instructed the monk Divākara and Du Xing to translate the text into Chinese. Later, Buddhapālitai, together with eminent monks such as Shunzhen, retranslated it at Ximing Temple, producing the circulated version. The mural brings these events to life, authentically reflecting the dissemination and exchange of Buddhist culture along the Silk Road.

Shao Qiangjun is an associate professor from the School of Art at Lanzhou University.