FILE PHOTO: A red carved lacquer tray with gardenia design from the Yuan Dynasty (left), preserved in the Palace Museum, and a black lacquer dish with mother-of-pearl inlay from the Ming Dynasty (right), preserved in the Metropolitan Museum of Art

Daqi, or natural lacquer, originates from the lacquer tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum)—a species of tall deciduous tree unique to China. A tradition spanning 8,000 years, Chinese lacquerware not only embodies the depth of Chinese cultural heritage but has also served as a medium for intercultural exchange via the Silk Road.

Silk Road: A conduit for lacquerware

The Silk Road served as a vital conduit for the trade of lacquerware. Although not a primary export item in Silk Road commerce, Chinese lacquerware became a symbolic “Eastern calling card” in cross-civilizational exchanges.

From the Han (206 BCE–220 CE) and Tang (618–907) dynasties onward, Chinese lacquerware was exported via the Silk Road, playing a significant role particularly in trade with East Asia and the Western Regions. With the rise of the Maritime Silk Road during the Song Dynasty (960–1279), China actively expanded lacquerware exports through coastal ports. In the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), the state institutionalized the lacquerware trade, establishing offices like the Shibotiju Si [a foreign trade authority] to manage overseas commerce. Although the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) implemented a tributary trade system that restricted foreign merchants from trading lacquerware in China, exports continued due to the profits from maritime trade and diplomatic voyages, including the voyages of Zheng He. Amid this expanding trade, European countries like Portugal, Spain, and the Netherlands developed a growing appetite for Chinese lacquerware, coveting it as a luxury good.

In the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), the government issued five separate “Maritime Prohibition Orders” aimed at suppressing anti-Qing forces along the southeastern coast and consolidating its rule. Despite these orders, European demand for Chinese lacquerware remained strong. Europeans managed to obtain Chinese lacquerware through various means, including private transport by missionaries, smuggling activities, and diplomatic gifts.

Overall, lacquerware became one of the most influential Chinese commodities along the Silk Road. The high cost of lacquerware led to significant silver outflows from foreign nations into China, drawing scrutiny from the economic and political elites in countries like Japan and France. As a result, these countries introduced trade control policies to restrict the import of Chinese lacquer and other luxury goods to protect their economic interests.

From outward diffusion to cultural reflux

During the Han and Tang dynasties, China’s open-minded ethos and rich cultural traditions greatly contributed to the export of lacquerware culture. The discovery of Han Dynasty lacquerware in regions such as the Crimean Peninsula north of the Black Sea and the Noin-Ula tombs in present-day Mongolia, as well as the lacquered cloth-core sculptures from Japan’s Nara period preserved in Tōshōdai-ji Temple, testify to the widespread reception of Han and Tang lacquerware culture by foreign societies.

By the Song Dynasty, the obstruction of the overland Silk Road led to the emergence of the Maritime Silk Road as a new channel for foreign trade. As the commodity economy flourished and the literati class gained prominence, Chinese lacquerware entered a new era characterized by privatized production, literati-influenced aesthetics, and increasing commodification for export. According to the Mengliang Lu, lacquer businesses in Lin’an [the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty, in present-day Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province] and lacquer shops in Wenzhou thrived during this period. Among them, Wenzhou lacquer shops in particular gained worldwide fame, and Zhejiang lacquerware was lauded as “the best under Heaven.” This marked the formation of distinct regional brands in southern China and ushered in an unprecedented phase of prosperity in lacquerware manufacturing.

Lacquering techniques such as carved lacquer and mother-of-pearl inlay reached new heights during the Song Dynasty. The use of colored lacquer and the polishing technique known as “tuiguang” attained remarkable sophistication. However, with the flourishing of maritime trade and the commodity economy in the south, the traditional ideology that emphasized agriculture over commerce began to loosen. As a result, consumer attitudes among the scholar-official class shifted toward utilitarianism and hedonism, fostering a social climate increasingly focused on luxury and aesthetic consumption

The Yuan Dynasty marked a watershed moment in the development of Chinese lacquerware culture. As the Mongol tribal system evolved into a political state, their lacquerware production practices were shaped by a combination of factors, including a taste for luxury and certain tribal preferences—such as the frequent use of plant motifs—which imposed certain limitations. Yet, this era was far from stagnant. On the contrary, the fusion of diverse ethnic cultures and the further expansion of the Maritime Silk Road gave lacquerware a broader platform for cross-cultural dialogue and outreach. This process not only significantly advanced lacquer techniques themselves but also exerted a remarkable cultural influence in the context of international cultural exchange.

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the export and dissemination of Chinese lacquerware took on a distinctly global dimension. In Japan, the treatise Xiushi Lu by Chinese lacquer master Huang Cheng was revered as a foundational text for the lacquer industry, while works by Chinese lacquerware artisan Jiang Qianli became celebrated templates for Japanese artisans. In Southeast Asia, according to the local lacquer craftsmen in the Maldives, the region had a thriving tradition of lacquer artisanship, with its techniques tracing back over 600 years to the voyages of Zheng He. In Europe and North America, Ming and Qing lacquerware offered a unique aesthetic experience that reshaped the perception and appreciation of Chinese lacquer art.

Beginning in the late 18th century, a reversal in the cultural flow of lacquerware began to emerge. With the rise of Japanese lacquer exports and the 1884 Chinese translation of the Treatise on the Art of Lacquering—an American technical manual—China encountered a “cultural reflux” in the lacquer arts. This reflux marked a shift in the direction of influence: techniques, aesthetics, and theoretical knowledge from external influences began to inform Chinese lacquerware production. From a socio-historical perspective, the introduction of the Treatise on the Art of Lacquering was clearly a product of the Self-Strengthening Movement and reflected the late Qing Dynasty’s push toward industrial development. Its arrival signaled the beginning of a reverse flow of American lacquer culture into China, challenging the long-standing pattern of unilateral Chinese export. At the same time, the technical formulations it introduced opened up new directions for the development of Chinese lacquer craftsmanship.

Dialogical mechanisms: From acceptance to misinterpretation

Since Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty opened the Silk Road, lacquerware was bestowed as gifts to Xiongnu envoys. By the late Tang Dynasty, the export of lacquerware began shifting from overland routes in the northwest to maritime routes. During the Song Dynasty, under the influence of northern nomadic groups such as the Liao and Jin, lacquerware export routes gradually pivoted further south and increasingly relied on the sea. Although lacquerware exports expanded significantly during the Yuan Dynasty, they were strictly regulated under the Yuan trade system, which imposed limits on export volumes. At various points in the Ming and Qing dynasties, maritime prohibition policies further constrained overseas lacquer trade. In particular, smuggling, piracy, and intermediary trade—common during these times—underscore the often difficult and circuitous nature of Chinese lacquerware’s global diffusion.

Overseas, during the 18th and 19th centuries, owning a piece of Chinese lacquerware became a fashionable pursuit among the European aristocracy. It was not only a symbol of wealth, but also a marker of status and refined taste. To them, possessing luxurious lacquerware was tantamount to owning a piece of Chinese culture. Some even believed that the intricate patterns on Chinese lacquerware offered a kind of “free journey” to China—offering deep insights into the elegance and aesthetic philosophy of Chinese civilization.

Lacquerware dining sets became fashionable among European nobility and royalty, influencing their dining customs. Many European countries began to present lacquerware as diplomatic gifts or incorporating it into courtly décor, etiquette, and cultural activities. In the Americas, ancient Chinese lacquerware was primarily introduced through European colonial trade. There, too, it came to be appreciated for its style and aesthetics sophistication. From the early 16th century to the late 18th century, the West evolved from mere admiration to conscious imitation.

Prior to the 18th century, overseas consumption and cultural experience of Chinese lacquerware remained largely passive. Foreign audiences often struggled to comprehend the artistic and cultural traditions embedded in Chinese lacquerware and failed to fully grasp its unique aesthetic qualities. This dual cognitive barrier limited their ability to engage in deeper, more active interpretation and interaction with the art form.

Due to the absence of native lacquer tree cultivation in the West, and under the influence of an “exoticism”-driven cultural mindset, Chinese lacquerware not only served as a medium for conveying Chinese culture and aesthetic philosophy but also became a vehicle for constructing an “imagined other” within the global cultural imagination. For instance, Japan began studying Chinese lacquer techniques during the Han and Tang dynasties and, by the Ming Dynasty, was exporting large quantities of lacquerware back to China. As a result, Japan became the world’s second-largest lacquerware producer after China—leading many in the West to mistakenly identify it as the “land of lacquer.” This illustrates that, to some extent, dialogue between Chinese and foreign civilizations has, at times, been shaped by misinterpretation and projection. Such cultural misunderstandings confined the Western experience of Chinese lacquerware to its material surface, preventing a deeper recognition and appreciation of the civilization behind it.

The overseas export of Chinese lacquerware not only reflects the universal significance of intercultural exchange between China and the world but also establishes a unique space for civilizational dialogue and mutual learning. This mode of cultural exchange, mediated through tangible objects, embodies the Eastern wisdom of “conveying the Way through vessels” and offers a distinctively Chinese approach to the development of world civilizations.

Pan Tianbo is a professor from the School of Chinese Language and Literature at Jiangsu Normal University.