Ecological civilization construction is a crucial undertaking for the sustainable development of the Chinese nation. From theory to practice, the “Two Mountains” Theory has taken deep root in the hearts of the Chinese people, becoming a powerful force propelling social progress and ecological advancement.

Scientific proposition

In August 2005, during an inspection of Yucun Village, a small mountainous village in Anji County, east China’s Zhejiang Province, Comrade Xi Jinping—then secretary of the CPC Zhejiang Provincial Committee—encountered the dilemma of balancing local ecological protection and economic development. Thus inspired, he put forward the scientific proposition that “lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets,” or the Two Mountains Theory.

This theory reveals the dialectical unity between economic development and ecological conservation. “Lucid waters and lush mountains” symbolize a healthy ecological environment—nature’s precious gift to humanity and a source of immense economic potential. “Invaluable assets,” often rendered in Chinese as “mountains of gold and silver,” represent the material fruits of economic development, an important manifestation of social progress and public prosperity. The two complement each other—protecting the ecological environment means protecting productive forces, and improving the ecological environment means developing productive forces. Transforming ecological advantages into economic ones is essential to achieving win-win outcomes for economic development and ecological conservation.

The Two Mountains Theory breaks through entrenched assumptions about the incompatibility of development and environmental protection, rejecting the old model of “pollute first, clean up later.” It affirms that ecological conservation is an integral component of development and calls for coordinated efforts to improve both ecological quality and economic performance. This sets the stage for a new chapter of harmony between humanity and nature.

Productive practices

Born in Anji, Zhejiang, the Two Mountains Theory has evolved into a core philosophy underpinning the construction of ecological civilization nationwide. Across China, regions are adapting this thesis to their local conditions, pioneering innovative approaches to harmonize ecological preservation with economic growth, thereby enriching and expanding its practical applications.

As the birthplace of the theory, Yucun Village in Anji decisively shut down polluting industries such as mining and cement production and instead embarked on a path of ecological tourism. Capitalizing on its lush natural surroundings, the village developed a four-season tourism model featuring “spring flower appreciation, summer retreats, autumn hikes, and winter skiing.” The value of ecological products has become increasingly evident, significantly boosting rural revitalization and common prosperity in terms of both quality and efficiency. Over the past decade, Anji’s adherence to the Two Mountains Theory has yielded dual benefits: Regional GDP surged from nearly 9 billion yuan (approximately $1.25 billion) in 2005 to over 60 billion yuan in 2023; per capita disposable income reached 60,000 yuan; and eco-tourism, starting from scratch, has attracted over 30 million visitors, generating nearly 45 billion yuan in revenue. Additionally, forest coverage stands at 71%, urban air quality excellence rate exceeds 91%, and water quality in all monitored sections achieves full compliance with national standards.

As regional practices deepen and achievements multiply, the Two Mountains Theory has evolved from a local development guideline to a core national philosophy, charting a new course for China’s comprehensive development transformation. Its implementation affirms that environmental protection and economic growth can be mutually reinforcing. By implementing the new development philosophy, advancing high-quality development, accelerating the formation of new quality productive forces, improving institutional mechanisms, and promoting green lifestyles, China is building an ecological civilization system that fosters harmony between humanity and nature.

The proposal and successful practices of the Two Mountains Theory also reflect the CPC’s unwavering commitment to ecological conservation while offering Chinese wisdom and solutions to global ecological civilization efforts.

Fang Hao is an associate professor from the School of Marxism at Zhejiang International Studies University.