In recent years, “civilization” has become a subject of heated debate. Does Chinese civilization date back 5,000 years, 8,000 years, or even earlier—or somewhat later? Opinions vary widely. At the root of these disagreements are differing scholarly understandings of the meaning of “civilization” and the criteria by which it should be identified.

Meaning of ‘civilization’

Modern and contemporary scholars have understood “civilization” in the Western context in diverse ways, which can broadly be summarized along two dimensions. In temporal or evolutionary terms, Lewis Henry Morgan interpreted “civilization” as an advanced stage of social development set against “barbarism”—the civilized era. This remains an influential understanding both in China and abroad. Viewed in this way, “civilization” is often associated with the “state,” to the point that many treat the two as virtually synonymous. Strictly speaking, however, “civilized society” is closer in meaning to the “state.” Friedrich Engels observed that “the central link in civilized society is the state,” essentially equating the “state” with “civilized society.”

A second understanding approaches “civilization” in spatial or historical-morphological terms. Liang Qichao wrote of the “five great ancient civilizations,” while Arnold J. Toynbee identified more than 20 civilizations across human history. From this perspective, “civilization” can be understood as long-lasting cultural traditions or broadly defined cultural entities.

The concept of “civilization” differs markedly in Chinese and Western traditions. In ancient China, it placed greater emphasis on personal moral cultivation and the refinement of social etiquette systems, whereas in the West it was more closely associated with the advancement of material culture and social development. The criteria for determining when personal morality and social etiquette systems qualify as “civilized” are relatively flexible, while “civilization” is easier to identify when material culture and social development have reached the stage of state formation. Even so, both perspectives regard “civilization” as an advanced condition of social development.

Starting from ancient Chinese thought, Chinese archaeologist Feng Shi proposed the establishment of the moral, knowledge, and ritual systems as criteria for defining Chinese civilization. Yet these criteria lack universal applicability and struggle to answer whether ancient Egypt or Mesopotamia should be considered “civilization.” Conversely, the essence of Chinese civilization cannot be fully grasped from an exclusively Western viewpoint. Any interpretation of “civilization” should therefore proceed from the principle of mutual learning among civilizations, integrating Chinese, Western, and global perspectives.

Taken as a whole, “civilization” can be described as such only when it has reached a sufficiently advanced stage, with the emergence of the state serving as the primary criterion. Accordingly, “civilization” may be defined as a comprehensive cultural entity that has entered the stage of state formation and encompasses material, spiritual, and institutional creation.

Criteria for civilizational origin

As a comprehensive cultural entity, “civilization” has both an origin and a process of formation, and these two stages should be judged by distinct criteria. Many scholars have noted that “civilizational elements”—such as cities, bronze artifacts, and writing—had already appeared before the advent of full-fledged civilizations.

According to the definition adopted here, the origin of civilization entails three aspects: the emergence of a comprehensive cultural entity that carries “civilization,” namely the initial formation of a relatively large-scale cultural community; the onset of social complexity, marked by preliminary social stratification and the division of labor in handicrafts; and the emergence of complex spiritual concepts and knowledge systems.

Measured against these criteria, several early civilizations across Asia, Europe, and Africa followed roughly similar two-stage trajectories: the first beginning more than 8,000 years ago, and the second around 6,000 years ago.

Criteria for civilizational formation

At what point can the development of civilization be said to have produced a fully formed civilization, or to have entered the civilized era? In political science, the decisive criterion is the emergence of the state. According to Engels, in contrast to the old gentile organization, the state is distinguished firstly by the grouping of its members on a territorial basis, and secondly by the institution of a public force. Territorial grouping means organizing society primarily on the basis of geographic rather than blood relations. Public force is concentrated in “sovereign power” standing above society—including military, political, and economic authority—and rests on the foundation of social stratification.

If material criteria for the formation of civilization must be established for use in archaeological practice, the most appropriate benchmark is the emergence of large central cities or duyi, the capital city. Many of the features Vere Gordon Childe associated with the “urban revolution” remain applicable, even today, to nearly all early states or civilized societies. The construction of large cities requires strong “public force” or “sovereign power,” which necessarily gives rise to a stratified society and the social division of labor. Much of the urban population comes from surrounding regions, while political administration radiates outward from the urban center to neighboring areas, producing territorially based social organization and, ultimately, the state. In recent years, Chinese scholars such as Wang Zhenzhong have argued convincingly that the emergence of duyi constitutes a hallmark of the formation of Chinese civilization.

In sum, definitions of “civilization” and the criteria used to identify it should integrate Eastern, Western, and global perspectives. Civilization’s origin and formation are two distinct stages, each requiring its own set of criteria. The origin of civilization involves the emergence of a comprehensive cultural entity that carries civilization, the onset of social complexity, and the emergence of complex spiritual concepts. In political science, the formation of civilization—or entry into the civilized era—is marked by the emergence of the state, while the rise of large central cities or duyi serves as its material benchmark.

Han Jianye is a professor from the School of History at Renmin University of China.