Language surveys serve strategic development. Photo: TUCHONG

Conducting large-scale language surveys is a crucial means of gaining a systematic understanding of how spoken and written language are structured and used in society. Such surveys provide a solid empirical foundation for national language planning and policymaking. They also possess both theoretical and practical significance, with their findings supporting a wide range of areas in social development.

At its core, language planning involves deliberate efforts to guide language development over time. Language surveys constitute a central component of this process and form an indispensable part of the broader language planning system. In China, surveys of the standard spoken and written Chinese language are among the most important large-scale language investigations undertaken. Over the past century, these surveys have played a fundamental role in underpinning policies and planning related to the standard spoken and written Chinese language.

National Survey of Language Distribution

Following the Xinhai Revolution, the movement for the modernization of the Chinese language shifted from conceptual exploration toward practical implementation. During the Republic of China period (1912-49), these efforts assumed different forms at different stages, but a central objective throughout was the promotion and unification of the national language.

The National Survey of Language Distribution was launched by the Ministry of Education of the Nationalist Government in November 1932 and produced preliminary results by May 1933. Data on language distribution was collected from 213 counties and cities across 19 provinces. The survey assembled extensive linguistic materials in support of the National Language Documentation Exhibition and the compilation of a National Language Distribution Map.

Through this investigation, researchers gained a basic understanding of the languages commonly used in most counties and cities nationwide, as well as of the actual use of the national language in primary education and in broader social contexts. The findings helped demonstrate the practical effects of the national language movement and played an important role in shaping both status planning and acquisition planning for the national language at the time.

Following the survey, the Nationalist Government adjusted its language policies, formally designating the promotion of the national language as a central priority. The survey also provided important support for national language education in both public and school-based settings, particularly with regard to the selection of teaching methods, curriculum design, and the approval of instructional materials.

Survey of Chinese Dialects

The Survey of Chinese Dialects was the first nationwide, large-scale preliminary investigation of Chinese dialects conducted after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Although its official mandate was to conduct an initial survey of dialect status nationwide, the project focused primarily on phonological features—including initials, finals, and tonal systems—by comparing local pronunciations with those of Beijing Mandarin. Selected aspects of vocabulary and grammar were also examined.

Launched in 1956, the survey covered all major Chinese dialect regions and continued for more than two years. It achieved substantial results, completing investigations at 1,849 of the 2,298 planned survey sites nationwide and producing 1,195 dialect survey reports along with 307 Mandarin learning manuals. The survey played a significant role in advancing the promotion of Mandarin and in implementing China’s foundational language policy of standardization.

The survey also involved extensive training and fieldwork, cultivating a large cohort of experienced Mandarin instructors. This process enabled instructors to develop a clearer understanding of the correspondences between local dialects and Mandarin, thereby supporting the preparation of teaching materials and reference works, improving instructional methods, and facilitating more targeted Mandarin education across different dialect regions.

From the perspective of promoting standard Chinese, the dialect survey systematically documented the phonological, lexical, and grammatical characteristics of local varieties, analyzed their divergences from Mandarin, and in doing so further advanced the development of a standardized Chinese language.

Survey on Standard Chinese Language

This survey marked the first nationwide, large-scale investigation of the learning and use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language. After two years of preparation, it was officially launched in September 1998. The survey targeted residents aged 15 to 69 on the Chinese mainland with normal language abilities and included respondents from different ethnic groups, genders, education levels, and occupations.

The investigation focused on several key areas: the use of Mandarin in different social settings, levels of Mandarin proficiency, Mandarin learning, and the use of simplified Chinese characters. Lasting six years, the survey ultimately covered approximately 475,000 individuals across 1,063 cities, districts, and counties nationwide.

Among its major findings, the survey measured the nationwide Mandarin proficiency rate for the first time, placing it at 53.06%. It also found that 95.25% of literate individuals used standard Chinese characters in writing, while 55.37% were able to read and write Pinyin. These results constituted the first comprehensive and scientific assessment of China’s language policies since the founding of the PRC, particularly those concerning the standard spoken and written Chinese language. They demonstrated that the three major language-related tasks established in the early years of the PRC had achieved notable success.

At the same time, the survey identified persistent challenges, including gaps between Mandarin promotion efforts and broader social development, as well as the need to strengthen promotion in rural and ethnic minority areas. Drawing on these findings, the 11th Five-Year Plan (2006–10) for national language development further reinforced the central role of the standard spoken and written Chinese language, emphasizing expanded promotion in rural and ethnic minority regions.

National Sample Survey on the Popularization of Mandarin Chinese

Conducted in 2020, this survey was a special investigation designed to assess the learning and use of Mandarin during a critical period associated with China’s “Two Centenary Goals.” The year marked both the final stage of eradicating extreme poverty and the completion of building a moderately prosperous society in all respects.

The survey consisted of both household-based and school-based components and was administered through online platforms, representing a first for this type of investigation. It covered 245 counties, cities, districts, and banners, and included 163,203 respondents. The results showed that by 2020, the nationwide Mandarin proficiency rate had reached 80.72%, an increase of 27.66% from the 53.06% recorded in 2000. This was widely regarded as a historic achievement, signaling the basic nationwide spread of Mandarin and the effective reduction of language barriers, and clearly reflecting the results of Mandarin promotion efforts in the 21st century.

Despite these gains, the survey revealed continued unevenness in Mandarin promotion. Rural areas and ethnic minority regions—particularly in central and western China—remain behind, and the overall quality of Mandarin proficiency still requires further improvement.

Based on the survey findings, policies for promoting Mandarin during China’s 14th Five-Year Plan (2021-25) were formulated on a more scientific basis. Key objectives included increasing promotion efforts in ethnic minority regions, raising Mandarin proficiency in rural areas, strengthening national Mandarin education, and improving overall language quality nationwide. By 2025, the target was to further expand the national reach of Mandarin, with a goal of achieving an 85% proficiency rate.

National Survey on Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language

In March 2025, the second National Survey on Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language was officially launched. Like its predecessor, the survey focuses on the learning and use of standard spoken and written Chinese, but it also introduces new components, including assessments of standard character recognition and reading and writing abilities. The survey targets residents aged 15 to 69 in selected households across the Chinese mainland and covers all 31 provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities, as well as the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps.

Looking back over nearly a century of surveys on the standard spoken and written Chinese language, both valuable experience and important lessons can be identified. Looking ahead, language surveys must confront existing challenges by enhancing the intellectual depth of survey content, broadening the scope of coverage, and strengthening the practical application of findings. Continuous improvements in survey quality will enable these investigations to provide stronger support for national strategies and to respond more effectively to social needs.

Future surveys should make full use of government leadership while improving coordination among national language authorities, statistical departments, and other relevant institutions. Competent survey teams must be assembled, with adequate human, material, and financial resources to support their work. Surveys should be conducted in strict accordance with laws such as the Law on Standard Spoken and Written Chinese and the National Statistics Law, ensuring that decision-making throughout the process remains scientific, democratic, and lawful.

At the same time, active public participation should be encouraged while safeguarding respondents’ data security. Surveys should assess the implementation of previous language policies and plans, generate accurate data to inform future policymaking, and enhance the practical usability of survey results. In this way, language surveys can better serve the public interest and guide the continued development of the standard spoken and written Chinese language.

A problem-oriented and targeted approach remains crucial. Surveys should prioritize the promotion and expanded use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language, address regional imbalances—particularly in rural and ethnic minority areas—and focus on key population groups such as preschool children, young and middle-aged laborers, and agricultural and pastoral communities. Precision-oriented investigations will help close existing gaps in language promotion and improve policy effectiveness.

Scientific rigor and continual refinement are equally important. Future surveys should build on earlier efforts to optimize survey platforms, strengthen professional expertise among survey teams, and ensure accuracy and standardization. Remaining pragmatic and adaptive, surveys should evolve alongside social changes while maintaining a clear focus on serving national strategies and socio-economic development. Ongoing improvements in methodology, sampling, and personnel selection and training, together with strict quality control, will further enhance standardization and promote the scientific advancement of language surveys.

Yuan Wei and Jiang He are from the Institute of Applied Linguistics at the Ministry of Education. Chen Xuetong is from the School of Literature at the University of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. This article is edited and excerpted from Journal of Yunnan Normal University, Issue 4, 2025.