Tourists walk on a suspension bridge at an abandoned-mine-turned eco-park in Baoqing County, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, on July 27. Photo: XINHUA

Traditional Chinese culture advocates “heaven and human are one unity (tianrenheyi),” embodying the idea of harmonious coexistence between humanity and nature. Today, there is growing recognition worldwide of the significant role of fine traditional Chinese culture in guiding ecological transformation.

To explore this further, CSST sat down with two scholars with extensive engagement in the study of traditional Chinese philosophy—Mary Evelyn Tucker, a senior lecturer and research scholar at Yale University where she teaches in a joint master’s degree program between the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies and the Divinity School, and Chen Xia, a research fellow at the Institute of Philosophy under the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.

World outlook in Confucianism

Tucker pointed out that the creativity and unity of the universe are recurring themes in Confucian classics, with humanity playing a special role in this dynamic cosmos. Confucianism emphasizes how individuals can live together and create a just society based on benevolent governance, advocating for proactive engagement as reflected in the principle of “heaven maintains vigor through its movement; a junzi (person of integrity) should constantly strive for self-perfection.”

Tucker noted that Confucianism rarely focuses on origin theories or concepts of personal deity. Instead, it examines how humans continuously grow and interact within the universe. Confucian holistic cosmology is grounded in “qi,” the vital energy that constitutes the dynamic foundation of the cosmos, imbuing it with perpetual vitality. This dynamic, organic worldview of Confucianism expands our understanding of ethics and morality, offering rich resources for rethinking the relationship between humans and nature. It allows us to appreciate the interconnectedness of all forms of life, and to constantly renew our perception of the sacredness of its intricate web.

The world outlook nurtured by traditional Chinese culture reveals a non-personalized cosmos where the birth, existence, and transformation of natural phenomena occur spontaneously rather than through human intervention. As a result, the traditional Chinese understanding of the harmonious nature of the universe is not a naive fantasy but arises from contemplation and recognition of the operational paradigm and true on-going state of the universe, Tucker added.

World outlook in Daoism

Chen elaborated that Daoism, including later Daoist teachings, holds a corporeal world outlook. Daoism places particular emphasis on the body, which holds a significant role within its philosophy. The Daoist conception of the body is broad, encompassing individual, societal, and natural dimensions. Daoism views these three—personal, social, and natural bodies—as interrelated, sharing a unified philosophical foundation and principles of cultivation. The individual body extends to the societal body of others, and ultimately expands to encompass the cosmic body of nature.

For the individual, the body represents the origin and endpoint of life. In the teachings of Laozi, founder of Daoism, the body holds priority. Laozi prioritizes the body over fame, wealth, and material possessions, asking, “Which is closer to you: your reputation or your body? Which is more valuable: your wealth or your body?” In Laozi’s view, everything originating from the body is most genuine and precious, Chen said.

In the social realm, Daoism extends the concept of the body to encompass the nation and others, advocating principles such as “the body and the nation share homologous governance.” In the natural realm, Daoism states “heaven and earth are great bodies, and human beings are small heavens and earths,” viewing nature as our own body, capable of mutual transformation. “Daoism expresses this relationship through terms like ‘macrocosm’ and ‘microcosm,’ though I prefer expressions like ‘external universe’ and ‘internal universe,’” Chen said.

She stressed that both the external and internal universes are bodies, and the relationship between humans and nature manifests as a relationship between these bodies. Through certain practices, these two bodies can merge, achieving “heaven and human are one unity.” Nurturing all things and cherishing nature equates to cherishing our bodies. This represents a unique ecological philosophy in Daoism that promotes enhancing personal well-being and quality of life, strengthening individual responsibility towards society, and encouraging a deeper concern for nature.

Implications for ecological conservation

Tucker emphasized that the ecological ethics of Confucianism and Daoism differ significantly. If Daoism’s ecological ethics can be seen as a natural ecology in line with contemporary deep ecology, Confucianism’s ecological ethics can be viewed as a form of social ecology. Daoism centers on nature, whereas Confucianism tends to prioritize human beings. However, neither promotes anthropocentrism or radical individualism.

While Daoism prioritizes nature as the nourishing force for individuals, Confucianism views nature as the indispensable foundation of public life. Confucian ethics are described as a form of social ecology, characterized by their focus on the networks of relationships within the natural order. According to Tucker, individuals are never isolated; they are always interconnected with others and with the universe. The profound connections between individuals and between humans and nature are central to Confucian thought.

Chen asserted that Daoism’s overall world outlook has an obvious influence on environmental ethics. It treasures and reveres nature itself rather than merely exploiting it for utilitarian purposes. It advocates for humans to appreciate and harmonize with dynamic natural processes rather than attempting to control them. Therefore, addressing environmental challenges requires not only robust environmental policies but also the advancement of ecological sciences and environmental engineering technologies to achieve carbon peak and carbon neutrality goals.

“However, we must also recognize that scientific and technological solutions alone cannot resolve human problems,” Chen warned. The root cause of current environmental destruction lies with humans themselves. So the ultimate resolution of environmental problems goes back to addressing human issues. If people do not change the means of production, their lifestyles, and their values, the destruction of environments will not stop. Even if we discover another habitable planet, if we do not change ourselves, we will inevitably turn that planet into another polluted and damaged Earth, she concluded.